Replied to Groups 1 &2 

Experiential Learning: Literature Review

John Adam Murray

2/6/2014

EDAC 634: Dr. Bo Chang

Executive Development for Public Service - Master's Program: Ball State University

Spring 2014

Abstract

This literature review will attempt to wholly, yet succinctly, clarify the method of experiential learning from a scholarly perspective. Continuing to grow in acceptance and application, the development of experiential learning as a working educational medium has allowed it to become somewhat of an umbrella term for various applications. Therefore, the varying internal theories of experiential learning will be reviewed. Moving forward, general themes will be extracted, recognizing main ideas within the framework of experiential learning. Finally, the practical implications of experiential learning will be discussed, looking toward its impact upon the adult learner and community education.

Introduction

The overly simplified definition of experiential learning is that it is obtaining knowledge within the act of experiencing. This definition allows us a jumping off point, but remains rather vague in expressing how and why knowledge is gathered, and exactly how experiential learning sets itself apart from competing adult educational models. For starters, experiential learning grew out of people's desire to recognize the role that they themselves play in acquiring knowledge through various experiences. The first person to really research and build upon the notion was John Dewey, who wrote Experience and Education in 1938. Dewey noted that not all experiences yield learning. The two components needed for experiential learning to take place according to Dewey were continuity and interaction. The first component pertaining to the adult learner being able to link previous knowledge to the current experience in a way that alters one's outlook and produces change. The second component, interaction, meaning that the participant needs to be actively engaging his/her environment with the lessons experientially learned via experimentation (Fenwick, T. 2001). Within the experiential field of study itself, there is great variance in where certain focus should be placed. Therefore, let us start by first identifying the predominant scholarly theories within experiential learning, before delving into greater review of the literature on each one:

1. Constructivist Theory of Experiential Learning
2. Situative Theory of Experiential Learning
3. Psychoanalytic Theory of Experiential Learning
4. Critical Cultural Theory of Experiential Learning
5. Social Action/Complexity Theory of Experiential Learning
   (Merriam, S. 2007)

Literature Review of Experiential Learning Theories

To begin with, in Kolb's constructivist model of experiential learning, he focuses on “cognitive reflection upon concrete experience(s)”, so that the adult learner is taking in knowledge within the experience itself, and then building upon this to come to further realizations upon in-depth reflection (Fenwick, T. 2001). His idea that an individual occurrence, or set of occurrences, leads to cognitive stimulation lends itself to a broad population, but is still reserved primarily for the adult learner, as Kolb points to four criteria for experiential learners: an openness to new or varied experiences; the ability to reflect on these experiences and distinguish value; abstract conceptualization skills; problem-solving skills in order to transfer gained knowledge into practical experimentation. These criteria, or skills, are to be utilized in a cyclical manner, starting with the first, and proceeding, in order, towards achieving actual practice (Merriam, S. 2007). To expand even further on Kolb's notion of the concrete experience, he sets in juxtaposition the idea of passive experiences. To elaborate, he connects concrete experiences to active doing, which yields primary learning. Conversely, passive experiences are linked to vagueness and secondary learning. Examples of passive experiences might include lectures, observing other 'doers', or reading (Bergsteiner, H., Avery, G., & Neumann, R. 2010). Therefore, all experiences, wherever they may lay on the spectrum between concrete and passive, provide an opportunity for knowledge acquisition for an adult learner possessing the previously mentioned cognitive skill-set.

Issues with the constructivist model arise because it fails to appreciate the learner's context as being an influencing factor, as well as underlying personal histories of learning and emotions. Moreover, it negates subconscious underpinnings that might inhibit learning, avoids focusing on “seeking change within complex systems”, and remains neutral towards experiential learning leading toward advanced communal betterment. All of these shortcomings with the constructivist model are addressed within the remaining theories forthcoming. However, before advancing, it is important to note that these varied ideas of experiential learning leave the adult educator in a state of flux, dependent upon the learning model/theory with which they most associate. Looking first at the adult teacher's role within the constructivist model, they are essentially guides that help “foster critical reflection” and tap into prior experiential learning to build upon that knowledge (Merriam, S. 2007). Examination of other theories' educators will be analyzed as well.

The second theory, situative experiential learning, focuses on the context in which learning occurs. That is to say, the environment and feelings attributed to the experience. This theory also applies reflection, or reevaluation, but requires the learner to become aware of their emotions, and focus on the positive feelings that can be appropriated toward growth. Additionally, if negative emotions are not overcome, they can negate experiential learning and its subsequent impact (Merriam, S. 2007). For example, experiential learning workshops for adult learners focus on recognition of feelings and different emotions within the given experience. The idea being that this emotionally open environment breeds greater empathy and helps lead to behavioral change (Schettler, J. 2002). Furthermore, the idea of “situated cognition” shows that the learning taking place within a given experience is being applied in real-time, not merely stored for later usage (Merriam, S. 2007). Case in point, apprenticeships, internships, and service learning are lending themselves to employers because the knowledge and skills acquired are allowing for immediate manifestation within the workplace. What is more, the situative cognition of the learner is not confined to them alone, but allows for greater collaboration and further development in the professional environment (Lewis, C. 2008). Adult educators following this theory tend to be facilitators, assisting participants to become involved in a particular activity. In so doing, they are allowing for confidence to grow in areas where the participant may have previously struggled. They may also assist in helping stagnant learners to push through the experience in order for revelations to come forth (Merriam, S. 2007). Moreover, the educator, perhaps in a service learning environment, might lead by example, providing guidance, or positive communication in order for the learner to better understand and value the experience at hand (Callison, D. 2003).

Next, the psychoanalytic theory of experiential learning expounds that the learner is split into two selfs, the conscious and unconscious. Both with unique desires, sometimes in conflict with one another, therefore muddying our ability to learn from, or have accurate self-reflection of the given experience. The unconscious is unable to learn, so the challenge is for the conscious learner to become aware of its desires. In helping the participants recognize their unconscious emotions, the adult educator may listen for those emotions to arise through questioning of past experiences. Educators must appreciate that experiential learning from a psychoanalytic perspective is often slow in progress, and allow for learning to take place at the individual's given speed (Fenwick, T. 2001). Also, they may empower the participants to use tools of self-reflection, such as journals or dream diaries to help bring their subconscious feelings to the forefront (Merriam, S. 2007). In so doing, the learner has a better understanding of his/her emotions at play within a given experience, and can associate this knowledge for greater advancements in future opportunities for experiential learning.

Moving on, the critical cultural theory deals with relationships of power, and how the inequality of these relationships can hinder the experiential learning process. The critical cultural perspective points to how realization of these powers leads to the learner being newly able to recognize avenues for resistance followed by means of empowerment and growth through experimentation (Fenwick, T. 2001). Opening a dialogue, and encouraging the learners to “critically analyze their situations and work toward a solution” is the role of the educator within this theory. More to the point, the educator utilizes questioning that helps enlighten the learner to their plight so that he/she can advance in solving the problem (Merriam, S. 2007).

Finally, the social action theory looks to create change within complex systems. Experiential learning via social action experiences yields “self-confidence, critical understanding of how power works in society”, and an awareness of the tools available to the learner in order to evoke change (Fenwick, T. 2001). For example, experiential learning on a much broader, global level, has led to platforms such as e-learning. This innovation allows opportunities for participants to have more options in their choice of higher education experiences, thus empowering them to have greater knowledge of their potential for personal impact within society. Even more, what used to be know as 'war-games', now referred to as 'peace gaming', is an experiential learning simulation that allows military and national leaders to witness the impact their real-time decisions would have, and use this experience to build knowledge in case of actual events (Utsumi, T. 2005). Adult educators of this theory help learners discover possibilities for change by opening up discussion supporting it. The teacher must appreciate the learners experiences of struggle, but be careful not to perpetuate a direct linkage to inequalities, instead allowing the learner to discover any social ties for him or herself (Merriam, S. 2007).

Experiential Learning Themes

The all-encompassing generality that any experience leads to experiential learning does the method a disservice. In reviewing the literature on this learning process, central themes emerge that help to clarify that experiential learning is dependent on the learner as much as the experience itself. The main ideas that arise include: reflective practice, distinguishing value, fluidity of knowledge, and the transitional relationship between learner and educator.

In regards to reflective practice, constructivist theory lays a heavy impetus upon the learner to enact a higher processing of the experience at hand. All other contributing factors aside, reflection upon the experience, either past or current, enables the learner to sift out the importance of the situation. This importance translates into knowledge. Therein, through reflective practice, the actual manifestation of experiential learning is taking place.

Next, distinguishing value is what separates the mundane experience from the appreciable experience. In other words, in order to succumb to a level of higher processing, one has to feel some value, interest, or practicality within the given experience. This can be as simple as an unconscious gut reaction towards an experience, or related feelings based on prior experience. It is the writer's experience and opinion, that this determination of value is what ultimately leads to a willingness towards new experiences.

This leads to the next theme, which is knowledge is fluid. Through experiential learning, the participant is not bound by one outlook, but rather open to multiple experiences, producing a more well-rounded perspective of the knowledge learned. Moreover, the knowledge learned within the experience can be applied immediately, in the future, or even relegated to one's subconscious to never be utilized. The point being that experiential learning may focus on the concrete experience at hand, but the byproduct, knowledge, is subjective in its application.

Finally, the many theories of experiential learning show how the educator has many roles. To say there is a template for facilitating experiential learning would be a falsehood. The roles include, to name a few, listener, discussion leader, coach, simulation facilitator, emotional sounding board, or reflective instigator. All of these roles however are centered around the learner and their experience, focusing on the positives and the potential for action.

Implications for Practice

In dealing with practical usages for experiential learning, there are numerous examples throughout secondary education and the professional industry. Focus has been placed on experiential learning as a means to develop leadership. Workshops for employees target simulation, job rotation (learning the requirements of multiple positions), and action learning/team problem solving as a means of using experiential learning to help create more knowledgeable employees (Lamoureux, K. 2009). These foci can of course be tied strongly to the themes mentioned above. These workshops, as well as service learner opportunities, depend upon reflective practice, within the experience itself, in order to yield any gains. The most productive of these workshops are those that incorporate “self-initiative and self-evaluation by the participant” (Birchfield, R. 2010).

Moreover, the objective must be of value to the participant. Failure to recognize the needs of the individuals yields an experience that is not noteworthy. In other words, in a workshop setting, the experience needs to be tailored to meet the goals of the organization involved, lest the participants lose interest due to lack of value.

Additionally, the facilitators must welcome all perspectives and recognize that the experiential learning taking place will yield differing results for each participant. How the knowledge is obtained, how it is utilized, and when, if ever, it is utilized, is unique to each individual learner. Creating a receptive environment that is not judgmental of emotions is critical in helping to foster the recognition of newly acquired knowledge.

Finally, the educators themselves need to be cognizant of the needs of their participants. How they implicate the experience and its reflection has a great impact on the knowledge obtained. Allowing for experiences to occur that have potential value, aids in creating true, applicable knowledge. The challenge for educators is understanding how best to bring this forth, and then adopting the subsequent roles, be it listener, discussion leader, coach, simulation facilitator, emotional sounding board, or reflective instigator.

Table 1. Summary of Literature Review

	Main Ideas	Application in Practice
Idea 1	Reflective Practice	Utilizing discussion, journaling, imagery, recollection of prior experiences, collaboration with peers, or self-introspection
Idea 2	Distinguish Value	Recognizing goals/objectives, establishing applicable modes for knowledge obtained, recognizing potential within the experience
Idea 3	Knowledge is Fluid	Open to new perspectives of previously learned knowledge, utilization of knowledge is unique to the learner, each experiential learner has a different value set of what knowledge is pertinent
Idea 4	Educators Must Be Flexible	Educators are not rigid in their experiential learning processes, educators must try to meet the goals/objectives of their learners within the experience

References

Bergsteiner, H., Avery, G.C., & Neumann, R. (2010). Kolb's experiential learning model: critique from a modeling perspective. Studies in Continuing Education, 32(1), 29-46.

Birchfield, R. (2010). Experiential learning. New Zealand Management, 57(4), 26-27.

Callison, D. (2003). Experiential learning. School Library Monthly, 20(2), 36-39.

Fenwick, T. (2001). Experiential learning: a theoretical critique from five perspectives. Columbus,

OH: ERIC Publications.

Lamoureux, K. (2009). Experiential learning. Leadership Excellence, 26(10), 10.

Lewis, C. (2008). Experiential learning. San Diego Business Journal, 29(46), 21-27.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood (3^rd ed.).

San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 159-188.

Schettler, J. (2002). Learning by doing. Training, 39(4), 38.

Utsumi, T. (2005). Globally collaborative experiential learning. The Turkish Online Journal of

Distance Education, 6(3), 40-47.