Katelyn Neary Literature Review

Commented on Group 1: Carylnn Moore & Group: 2 James Justus.
The Experiential Learning Theory in Adult Education

Katelyn R. Neary

Ball State University

Abstract

This literature review will examine the experiential learning theory exclusively in adult learning, which will then contribute to a program investigation and program design. The emphasis of this review is to gain a better understanding of the topic, while identifying themes related to the topic. An introduction regarding the topic and main points of the theory will be analyzed. The primary scholars of this theory, John Dewey, David Kolb, and Malcolm Knowles, will be discussed according to their primary theoretical contributions. The overall objective of this course is to design a program that provides educators with a reliable, consistent, and effective approach to educating adults. A discussion of implications will be provided to demonstrate how practitioners can effectively apply them in practice.

Experiential Learning Theory

Introduction

For the first time, the number of adults in our society is greater than the number of youths (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Given this, the number of adult learners is increasing and the demand for educational resources will only grow as the population continues to age. Merriam et al. submit concern over providing growth and development opportunities for adults. To meet needs conducive to adults it is imperative to understand how they learn. Experience is one of the major resources adults use for learning purposes and should be further explored to capitalize on its benefits. The purpose of this paper is to explore the experiential learning theory in relation to adult learning, the themes related, and suggestions of how to apply them with implications into practice.

While there are numerous theories on learning, there is no single theory established for adults; therefore, Malcolm Knowles developed a theory based on assumptions related to adults as learners. The Theory of Andragogy (Knowles, 1984) introduced the following assumptions in respect to adult learners:

1. “As a person matures, his or her self-concept moves from that of dependent personality toward one of a self-directing human being.”

2. “An adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience which is a rich resource for learning.”

3. “The readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of his or her social role.”

4. “There is a change in time perspective as people mature- from future application of knowledge to immediacy of application. Thus, an adult is more problem centered than subject centered in learning.” (Knowles, 1980, p. 44-45)

Clearly, adults have unique needs and motivations, as learners these assumptions can be used to help better meet their needs. When considering children learners and adult learners, one of the biggest differences can be found in experience. “The difference in quantity and quality of experience has several consequences for adult education” (Knowles, Holton, and Swanson, 2006, p. 66).

To meet the needs of the adult learners it is best to incorporate Knowles assumptions into practice. Facilitators should employ methods that complement the characteristics that distinguish adults as learners, rather than ignore them. Enhancement of adult education can be done through use of the experiential learning theory.

Historical Background

Examining the background of the experiential learning theory will help further understanding and gain a historical perspective on how it has proliferated the advancement of adult learning. Numerous scholars have contributed to the experiential theory including: Aristotle, John Dewey, David Kolb, Jean Piaget, and Kurt Lewin, just to name a few. Aristotle is the first scholar known to study experiential theory, but not the only one to recognize its importance. Since Aristotle’s time, more than 1,876 entries have been made in the Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). The first real documented work came from John Dewey in the early 20th century. It is because of Dewey’s work and emphasis on learning through experience that experiential learning is in formal educational settings. Dewey challenged educators in the 1910’s, 20’s, and 30’s to develop educational programs that would not be isolated from real life experience (Atkinson & Murrell, 2003).

Many renowned scholars have contributed to the experiential learning; furthermore, many have their own modifications in relation to the theory but one commonality is that the value of experience is a key source in learning. Perhaps one of the most recognizable theories related to experiential learning is that of David Kolb. Kolb, who recognized the work of previous scholars including: Dewey (1938), who focused on the role of experience in learning; Lewin (1952), who stressed the importance of the learner being active in learning; Piaget (1970), who described intelligence as the primary determinant of the interaction of the person and environment. Kolb established a theory based off previous scholar’s findings along with observations of college undergraduate, graduate, and adult learning theories resulting in the creation of Kolb’s model of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984).

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) uses four phases to illustrate his view on the theory, which was built using the work of many previous scholars primarily, Dewey. Kolb (1984) defines learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience.” The four components in Kolb’s experiential learning theory include:

            1. Concrete Experience

            2. Observation & Reflection

            3. Abstract Conceptualization

            4. Active Experimentation

Kolb’s ELT model uses the concepts of grasping and transforming these modes as a way to achieve learning through experience. The purpose of the Kolb’s experiential learning theory is to achieve “a fully integrated personality” (Malinen, 2000, p. 89). “Kolb pictured these capabilities as interrelated phases within a cyclical process, starting with concrete experiences” (Merriam et al., 2007, p.164).

Concrete Experience

Kolb begins his experiential learning theory with concrete experience; furthermore, to learn an individual must be involved in some sort of an experience. Concrete experiences occur daily whether in the workplace, family, and/or community.

Vygotsky (1978) exhibited compliance with Kolb’s Concrete Experience when developing the activity theory of social cognition. This theory calls for the conception of social knowledge that views learning as a transaction between the person and social environment. Embedded in each community of practice are norms, history, traditions of practice. Communities of practice include school, work, restaurants, etc.; furthermore, knowledge develops not just in an individual’s head but within the communities of practice.

One of Malcolm Knowles infamous assumptions for teaching adults is highlighted by use of Concrete Experience. This mode uses the assumption of, “The readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the development tasks of his or her social role” (pp.44-45). Depending on an individual’s daily surroundings and social role, development will vary. If a person is constantly in the workplace, but not in the community their experiences will be more career focused compared to others. If an individual is mainly around family members, and rarely gets involved in other communities of practice, their experiences will be more familial based (Knowles, 1980).

Getting out of our typical ‘communities of practice’ also helps one to have more experiences thus, more learning opportunities. According to Jarvis (2001), “Ironically, often the more experiences we have, the less likely we are to learn from them. Instead we tend to choose what is familiar and deny ourselves new learning” (p. 52). To enhance ones learning with the ELT, Dewey suggests individuals continue to engage in disparate experiences that promote and even inhibit learning. Dewey’s education philosophy is centered on “the belief that all genuine education comes about through experience does not mean that all experiences are genuinely educative… For some experiences are mis-educative” (Dewey, 1938, pp. 25-28). One might view an experience as not being educational, but it is still beneficial to experience a mis-educative experience rather than no experience. Concrete experiences are the basis for observation and reflection.

Observation and Reflection

The next component of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory is Observation and Reflection. Observational and reflective skills are needed so the concrete or new experiences can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. This model is also known as Reflective Observation.

Fenwick (2000) suggests that experiential learning relies on reflection as a key role and locates learning both within and under the control of the learner. Use of reflection in learning allows the individual more control internally and externally. Individuals’ observation and reflection can be affected by ‘opportunity costs’. Wlodkowski (2008) suggests that adults weigh ‘opportunity costs’ (money, time, etc.) to determine if they will gain from an experience. Each individual has differing opportunity costs and thus creates a difference in observation and reflection.

Individuals’ observations can impact ones reflection on an experience. Different variables impact each individual and can persuade a learner to make various interpretations. Wlodkowski (2008) shares that “adults want to be successful learners … If adults have a problem experiencing success or even expecting success, their motivation for learning will using decline” (p.100). If an adult does not achieve their desired state while involved in an experience, an individual might conclude a negative reflection and cease their involvement; furthermore, ceasing the experience and learning process.

When observing an experience individuals typically engage in reflective or non-reflective learning (Jarvis, 2001). Reflective learning involves one to “plan, monitor and reflect upon experiences” (p.52). Non-reflective learning is when an individual remembers an old experience and repeats it or just does whatever one is told to do, without reflecting on the experience.

In some instances, facilitators can help positively influence an individual to reflect. Zull (2002) notes prior knowledge is stored in the brain as neuronal networks. An effective teacher builds on the idea that the individual already has made from their previous concrete experiences. Beginning with related concrete experiences allows the learner to re-examine and modify their previous views. Facilitators may go about this by first asking students what they know about the specific topic or by asking what they remember from a pre-requisite course. For example, asking “What do you remember from graphing in Math 123 last semester?” Thus building off what the students remember from previous courses to help further their understanding.

Knowles fourth assumption about adults is recognized in this phase of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory. The change in time perspective as people mature from future application of knowledge to immediacy of application. What an adult concludes from observations and reflections varies from what a child would conclude. Accordingly acknowledging Knowles assumption can help adults achieve more realistic conclusions by having appropriate observations and reflections (Knowles, 1980).

Reflections from an individual are refined and condensed into abstract concepts.

Abstract Conceptualization

Following the observations and reflections from an experience prompts adults to use analytical abilities to integrate ideas and concepts. This leads to another component of Kolb’s ELT model: Abstract Conceptualization.

Kolb notes the way one processes the possibilities of each new event determines our future decisions and choices. This is important because those decisions and choices then determine the events one experiences and future choices and decisions. Thus, people create themselves by choices and decisions they endure (Kolb, 1984).

Atkinson and Murrell (1988) suggest “Abstract conceptualization calls for logical thinking and rational evaluation to create ideas that integrate their observations into logical sound theories” (p. 375). These sound theories are determined on an individual basis; furthermore, varying upon each person. Research suggests adults approach learning with pre-requisites from prior activities. Each individual has their own unique set of personal beliefs, motivations, and conceptions related to the subject and knowledge. During instruction, an individual constructs new meanings by relating them to their existing conceptions and frameworks (Kember & Murphy, 1990).

Fosnot notes Piaget felt “new experiences sometimes foster contradictions to our present understandings, making them insufficient and thus perturbing and disequilibrating the structure, causing us to accommodate” (Fosnot, 1996, p. 13). During abstract conceptualization, an individual must be able to adequately examine the components and determine what is logical; therefore, resulting in improved future experiences and thinking.

Learning effectively requires factual knowledge and the organization of these facts and ideas in a conceptual framework. It is critical to be able to retrieve knowledge for application and to transfer it to different contexts (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).

Knowles assumption of adult learners, “As a person matures, his or her self-concept moves from that of dependent personality toward one of a self-directing human being” is most prevalent to this learning mode. As one matures, their conceptualization also matures (Knowles, 1980, pp. 44-45).

Lewin illustrates the importance of defining the learning space in terms of a learner’s experience. Lewin states(Cartwright, 1951):

One of the basic characteristics of field theory in psychology, as I see it, is the demand that the field which influences an individual should be described not in objective physcialistic terms, but in the way that exists for that person at that time … A teacher will never succeed in giving proper guidance to a child if he does not learn to understand the psychological world in which that child lives … To substitute for that world of the individual the world of the teacher, of the physicist, or of anybody else is to be, not objective, but wrong. (p.62)

If one is refuted the use of their own observations, but rather must accept ideals and practices based on what others conclude, it is extremely ineffective and difficult for an individual to learn and have a complete understanding of a concept or anything. Without the option to account one’s own observations and reflections, critically impairs the ability for one to develop a comprehensive or conceptualization of anything.

Overall, abstract conceptualization provides the material from which new implications can be drawn for action.

Active Experimentation

The final sector of experiential learning according to Kolb is active experimentation and is needed to complete the cyclical process. This stresses action and participation while testing the concepts generated from the previous modes.

Dewey (1945) also agreed with the idea of active experimentation by stating, “Nothing takes root in mind when there is no balance between doing and receiving. Some decisive action is needed in order to establish contact with the realities of the world and in order that impressions may be so related to facts that their value is tested and organized” (p.45).

The phrase, ‘You don’t know until you try’ comes to mind. For example, an individual might take a scuba diving course and get all the terms and definitions correct on an exam identifying scuba equipment, before ever going into the water. Once this individual is hooked up to the scuba machine and under water, the real test of knowledge is found when attempting to operate the scuba machine. Knowing the terminology will be helpful, but if one only understands the definitions and operations of the scuba machine, it is useless to just know the terms. Actively testing out prior concepts is critical to a learner and in this case a scuba diver.

Robert Kegan states, “People grow best where they continuously experience an ingenious blend of challenge and support” (Kegan, 1994, p.42). Instructors and other classmates can often provide challenges and support to adult learners. This can help enrich experiences for all exposed to the experimentation of a concept.

Activities that can actively test learners include:

-sharing ideas so others can comment on them through oral or written feedback;

-actively testing a concept through hypothesizing and research;

-implementing a plan of action to see how it works;

-trying something new or really different that has an element of risk to it;

-transferring ideas found useful in one setting or context to new settings or contexts. (Mackeracher, 2004, p. 58)

Knowles third andragogical assumption of “An adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience which is a rich resource for learning.” This reservoir of experience would not be possible without active experimentation. Children might be instructed on what it’s like to be in the ‘real world’, but adults who have experienced it know different mechanism to handle it (Knowles, 1980, pp. 44-45).

Action can be seen as one of the most critical components of the learning cycle. Zull suggests this because it closes the learning cycle by bringing the inside world of reflection and thought into contact with the outside world of experience (Zull, 2002).

Conclusion of Themes

According to Kolb’s the Experiential Learning Theory, each mode represents an integral component that an adult learner must go through or ‘experience’. This theory states a learner moves through the cycle first by having an immediate or Concrete Experience, which becomes the basis for the next mode titled, Reflective Observation. The observations and reflections made are used to arrive at the next mode, Abstract Conceptualization which then develops a concept or theory. The newly developed ideas then can be tested leading to the next and final mode, Active Experimentation which can serve as a guide for creating new experiences.

Kolb developed this theory based on the work of well-known scholars whom also gave experience a central role in their research. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory is a great resource to help educators effectively meet the needs of adult learners.

Implications

Use of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, can maximize the education of adult learners. Allowing experience to be a part of the learning process can make learning more effective and efficient for learners, especially adults. The difference between adult learners and children learners is defined by Malcom Knowles as the term of ‘andragogy’. This term provides assumptions about adult learners, which can be used to better understand and aid adults in education. Ignoring adult’s prior experience has often been neglected in educational settings, but when used and incorporated in an education setting has proved to be effective.

The implications for practical application with adult learners can be found by use of Kolb’s four Experiential Learning Theory Modes: Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualization, and Active Experimentation.

The first suggested way to apply this theory into practice is through Concrete Experience: Experiential learning takes place around us all the time. Understanding that all day, any day, and everyday learning can take place. Educators should draw upon these opportunities and reiterate this to learners; furthermore, encouragement of everyday ‘communities of practice’ as a source to evaluate previous and current knowledge. For example, if a marketing instructor was teaching about fast-food marketing, the instructor could ask the students, “What is your favorite fast food and why?” Thus encouraging participation of the students with recollection of past experience with fast food businesses.

Another practical application can be found by using Reflective Observation. Reflection is the key to transfer knowledge to experience. Learners must be given opportunities within their classroom for authentic dialogue, reflection, and feedback with peers in a safe environment. This can be demonstrated by an instructor who requires students to read the work of others, before going onto the next topic and encouraging them to ask each other questions.

Another application using the experiential learning theory can be accomplished through Abstract Conceptualization. Learning can happen in any setting, but connecting the experience with observations and reflections to make a sound theory is necessary. Educators can help learners be even more efficient by recognizing that most experiences are learning opportunities. To achieve abstract conceptualization in the classroom, an instructor could emphasize this concept by seeing all experiences as valuable in some respect, but individuals all view different things as valuable. Not all students will interpret things the same way; furthermore, being aware that this is likely helps with accepting others views.

Another implication using the ELT is Active Experimentation. All newly developed ideas must be ‘experimented’ and tested before a full comprehension can be made by a learner according to Kolb. Educators must not only provide factual information, but also opportunities to ‘test’ these new concepts. This can be implemented in a classroom by instructors allowing students to actually get up and actively experiment with their new profound knowledge.

By considering experience within educating adults, many beneficial finds have been acquired complimentary to both student and facilitator. These findings are applicable to contribute to all types of adult learners no matter their level of expertise in any given area. With more emphasis on experience, more studies, reports, and findings will be conducted; therefore, allowing instructors to provide a more effective and efficient learning experience for all.

Conclusion

This paper has explained the various components of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory; furthermore, highlighting the relationship between adults and experience. To effectively meet the needs of adult learners, numerous facets should be considered that may differ from notoriously preconceived learning practices. Using experience in a learning environment can help adult’s further success in an educational setting.

After reviewing the literature it is apparent that the experiential themes mentioned in this paper provide an essential foundation specifically of use for adult learners. The themes provide a basis for a facilitator to use to be more effective and efficient with adult learners. Concrete Experience should be recognized by individuals as something that happens in any and all settings as one lives. Reflective Observation challenges one to consider other alternatives. Abstract Conceptualization calls for a critical analysis of an experience. Active Experimentation stresses action on behalf of the individual, preferably in the same context as the first mode. Overall, numerous research findings support the importance of each theme in relation to experience in adult learning. Each theme makes its own distinctive contribution to an experiential learning environment.

Going forward, there will be more adults participating in educative activities than ever before. To deliver to this adult audience, educators should consider capitalizing on their unique characteristics, specifically experience. Enhancement of adult education can be done through use of Kolb’s experiential learning theory.

References

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